vol 2: Synopsis
part II: A brief history of dynamics
page 14: Isaac Newton
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... to restore theology to the mainstream of science
Isaac Newton
(1643-1727)
Newton, building on the work of the Galilean era, showed that the heavens and the earth are physically one. Using a mathematical model and astronomical observations, Newton demonstrated that the same forces govern both terrestrial and extraterrestrial bodies. Not only did this unite physics and astronomy, but Newton's methods caused a revolution in mathematics. Mathematics is still expanding on the momentum it gained from his work.
Newton postulated that all the physical motions of massive bodies obeyed three simple axioms or laws:
1. Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces acting upon it.
2. The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impressed; and it is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.
3. To every action there is always imposed an equal reaction; or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.
There are many sources of impressed force. In astronomical questions, we are mainly concerned with gravitation. Newton's law of gravitation tells us that the attractive force between two massive bodies is proportional to the product of their masses divided by the distance between them squared.
These four laws could, in principle, explain all the motions of the solar system and its satellites. The first three laws became the foundation for designing the machinery of the industrial age. Only toward the end of the nineteenth century did it become clear that Newton's laws have limited applicability.
Newton put the sciences of mechanics and astronomy on a sound footing, but his method of mathematical modelling was to have even greater influence.
Casting an eye back over the last few thousand years, one might see that a central scientific issue has been the relationship between motion and stillness. How do we relate the eternal stillness of god to the chaotic dynamics of earth? In particular, how to relate the eternal truths of mathematics to this same dynamic world. The answer came with the invention of the cinema, in the form of calculus. To study motion, break it into little steps. To see it more closely, make the steps smaller. To se it with mathematical precision, let the size of the steps go to zero as their number goes to infinity.
First, as Galileo had guessed, Newton clinched the argument that mathematics was the language of nature.
Second, despite the mathematical advances made by Newton himself, there was still a long way to go before mathematicians themselves could show the consistency and reliability of his methods. His invention of the calculus opened up once more questions of infinity and continuity that had troubled mathematicians since earliest times.
Third, Newton opened new fields of mechanical problems to mathematical treatment. The results obtained in these fields became the mathematical foundations of quantum physics and general relativity.
The volume of mathematics and physics generated in the centuries since Newton has continued to grow exponentially. We shall sample a few more points on this curve before turning to the construction of a model of god.
Further reading
Books
| Buchwald, Jed Z, and I Bernard Cohen (Editors), Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy, MIT Press 2000 Jacket: 'Newton studies have undergone radical changes in the last half-century as more of his work has been uncovered and more details of his life and intellectual context have come to light., This volume singles out two strands in recent Newton studies: the intellectual background to Newton's scientific thought and both specific and general aspects of his technical science. The essays make new claims concerning Newton's mathematical methods, experimental investigations and motivations, as well as the effect tha this long presence had on science in England.' Amazon back |
| Misner, Charles W, and Kip S Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, Gravitation, Freeman 1973 Jacket: 'Einstein's description of gravitation as curvature of spacetime led directly to that greatest of all predictions of his theory, that the universe itself is dynamic. Physics still has far to go to come to terms with this amazing fact and what it means for man and his relation to the universe. John Archibald Wheeler. ... this is a book on Einstein's theory of gravity (general relativity).' Amazon back |
| Moulton, Forest Ray, An Introduction to Celestial Mechanics, Dover 1970 Jacket: 'An unrivalled text in the field of celestial mechanics, Moulton's theoretical work on the prediction and interpretation of celestial phenomena has not been superseded.' Amazon back |
| Newton, Isaac, and Albert Einstein (foreword), Edmund Whittaker (Introduction) Bernard Cohen (Preface), Opticks : Or a Treatise of the Reflections Inflections and Colours of Ligh, Dover 1952 Jacket: 'Here is one of the most readable of the great classics of physical science. First published in 1704, Newton's Opticks provides not only a survey of the 18th century knowledge about all aspects of light, but also a countless numnber of the author's unique scientific insights. It will impress the modern reader by its surprisingly contemporary viewpoint.' Amazon back |
| Newton, Isaac, and Julia Budenz, I. Bernard Cohen, Anne Whitman (Translators) , The Principia : Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy , University of California Press 1999 This completely new translation, the first in 270 years, is based on the third (1726) edition, the final revised version approved by Newton; it includes extracts from the earlier editions, corrects errors found in earlier versions, and replaces archaic English with contemporary prose and up-to-date mathematical forms. ... The illuminating Guide to the Principia by I. Bernard Cohen, along with his and Anne Whitman's translation, will make this preeminent work truly accessible for today's scientists, scholars, and students. Amazon back |
| Westfall, Richard S, Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton, Cambridge University Press 1983 Jacket: 'The richly detailed biography captures both the personal life and the scientific career of Isaac Newton, presenting a fully rounded picture of Newton the man, the scientist, the philosopher, the theologian and the public figure. Professor Westfall treats all aspects of Newton's career, but the account centers on a full description of Newton's achievements in science. Thus the core of the book describes the development of the calculus, the experimentation that altered the direction of the science of optics, and expecially the investigations in celestial dynamics that led to the law of universal gravitation.' Amazon back |
Papers
| Gundlach, Jens H and Stephen M Merkowitz, "Measurement of Newton's Constant Using a Torsion Balance with Angular Acceleration Feedback", Physical Review Letters, 85, 14, 2 October 2000, page 2869-2872. Abstract: 'We measured Newton's gravitational constant G using a new torsion balance method. Our technique greatly reduces several sources of uncertainty compared to previous measurements: (1) it is insensitive to torsion fibre anelastic properties; (2) a flat plate pendulum minimises the sensitivity due to the pendulum density distribution; (3) continuous attractor rotation reduces background noise. We obtain G = 6.674215 +- 0.000092) x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2; the Earth's mass is therefore Me = (5.972245 +- 0.000082) x 1024 kg and the Sun's mass is Ms = (1.988435 +- 0.000027) x 1030 kg.'. back |
| Harrison, Edward, "Newton and the Infinite Universe", Physics Today, 39, 12, January 1986, page 24. back |
Links
| Cambridge University Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences 'The Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences is a national and international visitor research institute. It runs research programmes on selected themes in mathematics and the mathematical sciences with applications in a very wide range of science and technology. It attracts leading mathematical scientists from the UK and from overseas to interact in research over an extended period.' back |
| Cambridge University Isaac Newton Links 'Here at the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, we are often asked about Newton's life and works. There are already many excellent and informative Web sites and books about Newton, so rather than duplicate those, we have put together a guide to some of the places, both real and virtual, where you can find out more.' back |
| Imperial College Welcome to the Newton Project Homepage 'The magnitude of Newton's accomplishments places him in the very first rank of scientists and mathematicians. However, although most early modern scientists have been honoured with comprehensive editions of their collected works, there is no similar tribute to Newton. Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, this has been seen as a gaping lacuna and even a national disgrace by scientists and statesmen alike. There are excellent editions of his mathematical and scientific papers, as well as of his correspondence, but very few of his non-scientific writings have ever appeared in print. The Newton Project will place these writings in their relevant contexts, which will be made accessible by means of hyperlinks.' back |
| John H Lienhard No 410: Coleridge and Newton Today, Romantic poets set the stage for Victorian science. The University of Houston's College of Engineering presents this series about the machines that make our civilization run, and the people whose ingenuity created them. Here's an odd letter by the poet Coleridge. He's 29 and writing to his friend Tom Poole. " ... deep Thinking," he says, is attainable only by a man of deep Feeling ... all Truth is a Species of Revelation. back |
| Newton.org Sir Isaac Newton 'Welcome to newton.org.uk - the virtual museum of Sir Isaac Newton and the history of science.' back |
| University of Tennessee Newton's Three Laws of Motion Astronomy 161: The Solar System, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Tennessee. back |
| University of Tennessee Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation Astronomy 161: The Solar System, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Tennessee. back |
| University of Tennessee Sir Isaac Newton and the Unification of Physics and Astronomy. Astronomy 161: The Solar System, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Tennessee. back |
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